Lesson 15 Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

 Substantially taken from McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 11). Bruner - learning theory in education. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html   

McLeod (2019) emphasized that, Bruner (1966) was interested in how different modes of thinking are used to represent and organize knowledge - representation. Jerome Bruner postulated three modes of representation in his study of children's cognitive development:

1. Enactive representation (action-based)
2. Iconic representation (image-based)
3. Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. His work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately (McLeod, 2019).

Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory. Rather than neat age-related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.

 

Enactive (0 - 1 year)

The first kind of knowledge representation. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking).

It involves encoding physical action-based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle. This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike.

Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

 

Iconic (1 - 6 years)

Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.

Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piaget’s concrete operational stage).

In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems, such as music. Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc. so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images (which have a fixed relation to that which they represent).

 

The Spiral Curriculum

Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) can understand complex information:

'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.' (p. 33)

He explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.

Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.

 

Discovery Learning

Bruner proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told by the teacher.

The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach). The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of information.

To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

 

Educational Implications

The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn). For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem-solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children. The main premise of Bruner's study was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.

Rhalmi (2007) enumerated some direct implications for teaching practices Bruner’s learning theory:

• Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of the learners’ learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction according to the difficulty that matches learners’ level.
• The teachers must revisit the material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught ideas to grasp the full formal concept is of paramount importance according to Bruner. Feel free to re-introduce vocabulary, grammar points, and other topics now and then to push the students to deeper comprehension and longer retention.
• The material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to acquire and construct knowledge and transform and transfer his learning.
• Students should be involved in using their prior experiences and structures to learn new knowledge.
• Help students to categorize new information to able to see similarities and differences between items.
• Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should fade away as it becomes unnecessary.
• Teachers should provide feedback that is directed toward intrinsic motivation. Grades and competition are not helpful in the learning process. Bruner states that learners must “experience success and failure not as reward and punishment, but as information” (Bruner 1961, p. 26)